The short version of Immunomodulatory peptide fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-01-23. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
The molecule consists of 28 amino acid residues with an acetyl group attached to the N-terminal serine. Its sequence is acidic overall, with several glutamic and aspartic acid residues distributed along the chain and no cysteine, so disulfide bridges do not form. The peptide carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. Because the N-terminus is blocked, the intact molecule resists degradation by many aminopeptidases, which contributes to its stability in biological fluids.
The peptide is generated in cells by cleavage of prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein encoded by the PTMA gene. Prothymosin alpha is expressed in many tissues, not only in the thymus, and its functions include nuclear roles in chromatin-related processes. The 28-residue fragment corresponds to the N-terminal portion of that precursor. How the cleavage occurs and how the fragment's concentration is regulated remain open questions; circulating amounts are small and difficult to measure reliably with routine assays.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Thymosin alpha 1 is approved as a medicine in several countries, including Italy and China, for indications such as chronic hepatitis B and as an immune adjuvant. It is not approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration as a therapeutic product. In research settings the peptide appears in studies of sepsis, vaccine response, and oncology support, often with mixed or inconclusive results. The evidence base is uneven, and reviews note that many trials were small. Regulatory status therefore differs widely between jurisdictions.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a synthetic 28-amino-acid peptide first isolated in 1966 from thymosin fraction 5, a bovine thymus extract. Its chain begins with an acetylated serine residue and ends with asparagine. The native peptide carries a molecular mass near 3,108 daltons. Researchers classify it as an immunomodulatory agent rather than a hormone with a single endocrine target. Early work framed it as a thymus-derived factor that supports T-cell maturation. The synthetic form used in research and clinical products matches the natural sequence.
Laboratory work indicates that the peptide acts on cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Reported effects include signalling through Toll-like receptors on dendritic cells, enhanced T-cell maturation, and increased natural killer cell activity. These actions are described largely from cell-culture and animal experiments, and the precise receptor-level events remain incompletely defined. Studies in humans have generally measured immune markers rather than a single defined molecular target. The resulting picture remains partly descriptive.
Clinical research has examined the peptide in chronic hepatitis B and C, as a vaccine adjuvant, and in sepsis and oncology settings. Results across trials have been mixed, and several studies were small or conducted under differing protocols. Regulatory status varies by country, and the compound is not approved in every jurisdiction where it is studied. Evidence for any single indication should be read with attention to sample size and endpoint choice.
The muscle cells need ATP (adenosine triphosphate) as it provides energy for muscle contraction by actively transporting calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum before muscle contraction, and it is used during muscle contraction for the release of myosin heads in the sliding filament model during the cross-bridge cycle. Along with the myokinase reaction, AMP is also produced by the purine nucleotide cycle, which also runs when the ATP reservoir in muscle cells is low, and is a part of protein metabolism. In the purine nucleotide cycle, three nucleotides: AMP (adenosine monophosphate), IMP (inosine monophosphate), and S-AMP (adenylosuccinate) are converted in a circular fashion; the byproducts are fumarate (which goes on to produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation), ammonia (from the conversion of AMP into IMP), and uric acid (from excess AMP). GSD-V patients may experience myogenic hyperuricemia (exercise-induced accelerated breakdown of purine nucleotides in skeletal muscle). To avoid health complications, GSD-V patients need to get their ATP primarily from free fatty acids (lipid metabolism) rather than protein metabolism. Over-reliance on protein metabolism can be best avoided by not depleting their ATP reservoir, such as by not pushing through the pain and by not going too fast, or too soon. Patients may present at emergency rooms with a transient contracture of the muscles and often severe pain (e.g. "clawed hand").
PET scans are increasingly read alongside CT or MRI scans, with the combination (co-registration) giving both anatomic and metabolic information (i.e., what the structure is, and what it is doing biochemically). Because PET imaging is most useful in combination with anatomical imaging, such as CT, modern PET scanners are now available with integrated high-end multi-detector-row CT scanners (PET–CT). Because the two scans can be performed in immediate sequence during the same session, with the patient not changing position between the two types of scans, the two sets of images are more precisely registered, so that areas of abnormality on the PET imaging can be more perfectly correlated with anatomy on the CT images. This is very useful in showing detailed views of moving organs or structures with higher anatomical variation, which is more common outside the brain. At the Jülich Institute of Neurosciences and Biophysics, the world's largest PET–MRI device began operation in April 2009. A 9.4-tesla magnetic resonance tomograph (MRT) combined with a PET. Presently, only the head and brain can be imaged at these high magnetic field strengths. For brain imaging, registration of CT, MRI and PET scans may be accomplished without the need for an integrated PET–CT or PET–MRI scanner by using a device known as the N-localizer.
== Scientific work and contributions == Richardson's first forays into science were in the field of astronomy. By observing the position of Sputnik – at the time, the only artificial satellite – on two successive nights, she managed to calculate its predicted orbit. She submitted her results to the Westinghouse Science Talent Search, winning third place in 1958. Richardson joined her husband David C. Richardson, then completing his PhD work at MIT, in studying the 3-dimensional structure of the staphylococcal nuclease protein (1SNS) by X-ray crystallography for his doctoral thesis. Staphylococcal nuclease was among the first dozen protein structures solved. Classes in botany and evolution that she had taken while pursuing her degree shaped her thinking about the work she was doing in the chemistry laboratory. During her crystallographic studies, Jane Richardson had come to realize that a general classification scheme can be developed from the recurring structural motifs of the proteins. In the meantime, Jane and David Richardson had moved to Duke University in 1970, where they solved the first crystal structure of superoxide dismutase (2SOD). By 1977 she published her findings on protein relatedness in Nature, with a paper entitled "β-sheet topology and the relatedness of proteins".
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2007.11.082 Switching DNA-binding specificity by unnatural amino acid substitution. Maiti, A., & Roy, S.* (2005) Nucleic Acids Res, 33, 5896-903. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gki899 Asynchronous basepair openings in transcription initiation: regulation by enhancing the rate limiting step. Roy, S., Lim, HM., & Adhya, S. (2004) EMBO J, 23, 869-75. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7600098 Fluorescence quenching methods to study protein-nucleic acid interaction. Roy, S.* (2004) Methods Enzymol, 379, 175-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(04)79010-2 2-Aminopurine as a probe for Basepair opening during Transcription Initiation. Roy, S.* (2003) Methods Enzymol, 370, 568-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(03)70048-2 Glutamate counteracts the denaturing effect of urea through its effect on the denatured state. Mandal, AK., Samaddar, S., Banerjee, R., Lahiri, S., Bhattacharyya, A., & Roy, S.* (2003) J Biol Chem, 278, 36077-84. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M211207200 Solvation Change and Ion release During Aminoacylation by Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Bannerjee, R., Mandal, AK., Shah, R., Guha, S., Samaddar, S., Bhattacharyya, A., & Roy, S.* (2003) Nucleic Acids Res, 31, 6035-42. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkg779 Aib-based peptide backbone as scaffolds for helical peptide mimics. Banerjee, R., Basu, G.,* Roy, S.,* & Chene, P. (2002) J Pept Res, 60, 88-94.https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3011.2002.201005.x DnaK-sigma32 interaction is temperature dependent: Implication for the mechanism of heat-shock response.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
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The 1960s and 1970s saw a great deal of activity (and expenditure) in the recovery of manganese nodules from the abyssal plains, with varying degrees of success. This does demonstrate, however, that the recovery of minerals from the seafloor is possible and has been possible for some time. Mining of manganese nodules served as a cover story for the elaborate attempt in 1974 by the CIA to raise the sunken Soviet submarine K-129 using the Glomar Explorer, a ship purpose-built for the task by Howard Hughes. The operation was known as Project Azorian, and the cover story of seafloor mining of manganese nodules may have served as the impetus to propel other companies to make the attempt.
Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B27 (subtypes B*2701-2759) is a class I surface molecule encoded by the B locus in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on chromosome 6 and presents antigenic peptides (derived from self and non-self antigens) to T cells. HLA-B27 is strongly associated with ankylosing spondylitis and other associated inflammatory diseases, such as psoriatic arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and reactive arthritis.
A year later, in 2017, the government further withdrew his personal bodyguard service provided by the police Special Action Unit (UTK), following the earlier termination of his cook and office assistant's contracts. This decision by the government also drew criticism from various parties. However, Inspector-general of Police Mohamad Fuzi Harun denied this, stating that only ordinary police officers had been recalled, while Mahathir's bodyguard service from the elite UTK remained intact. The Prime Minister's Department also refuted this claim, stating that it was still paying for 21 staff at Mahathir's home and office. In early 2018, Mahathir was announced as Pakatan Harapan's prime ministerial candidate for the upcoming general election. Wan Azizah Wan Ismail, wife of his former political enemy Anwar, ran as his deputy. Mahathir's election promise was to seek a pardon for Anwar, in order to allow him to take over as prime minister after an interim period.
Franklin's X-ray diffraction data for DNA and her systematic analysis of DNA's structural features were useful to Watson and Crick in guiding them towards a correct molecular model. The key problem for Watson and Crick, which could not be resolved by the data from King's College, was to guess how the nucleotide bases pack into the core of the DNA double helix.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The medical uses of estradiol cypionate are the same as those of estradiol and other estrogens. Examples of indications for the drug include hormone therapy and hormonal contraception. In regard to the latter, estradiol cypionate has been used in combination with medroxyprogesterone acetate as a combined injectable contraceptive. Along with estradiol valerate, estradiol undecylate, and estradiol benzoate, estradiol cypionate is used as a form of high-dose estrogen therapy in feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women. The medication has been used to induce puberty in girls with delayed puberty due to hypogonadism. Estradiol cypionate is usually used at a dosage of 1 to 5 mg by intramuscular injection every 3 to 4 weeks in the treatment of menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes and vaginal atrophy, at a dosage of 1.5 to 2 mg by intramuscular injection once a month in the treatment of female hypoestrogenism due to hypogonadism, and at a dosage of 2 to 10 mg by intramuscular injection once every 1 or 2 weeks for hormone therapy in transgender women. The doses used to induce puberty in girls are 0.2 to 2.5 mg per month, gradually increased over a period of 4 years.
In 1995, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) began frontal offset crash tests. Also in the same year, Volvo introduced the world's first car with side airbags: the 850. In 1996, the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) was established to test new vehicles' safety performance and publish the results for vehicle shoppers' information. The NHTSA crash tests are presently operated and published as the U.S. branch of the international NCAP programme.
Natural calcium is a mixture of five stable isotopes—40Ca, 42Ca, 43Ca, 44Ca, and 46Ca—and 48Ca, whose half-life of 4.3 × 1019 years is so long that it can be considered stable for all practical purposes. Calcium is the first (lightest) element to have six naturally occurring isotopes. By far the most common isotope is 40Ca, which makes up 96.941% of natural calcium. It is produced in the silicon-burning process from fusion of alpha particles and is the heaviest stable nuclide with equal proton and neutron numbers; its occurrence is also supplemented slowly by the decay of primordial 40K. Adding another alpha particle leads to unstable 44Ti, which decays via two successive electron captures to stable 44Ca; this makes up 2.806% of natural calcium and is the second-most common isotope. The other four natural isotopes, 42, 43, 46, 48Ca, are significantly rarer, each comprising less than 1% of natural calcium. The four lighter isotopes are mainly products of oxygen-burning and silicon-burning, leaving the two heavier ones to be produced via neutron capture. 46Ca is mostly produced in a "hot" s-process, as its formation requires a rather high neutron flux to allow short-lived 45Ca to capture a neutron. 48Ca is produced by electron capture in the r-process in type Ia supernovae, where high neutron excess and low enough entropy ensures its survival. 46Ca and 48Ca are the first "classically stable" nuclides with a 6-neutron or 8-neutron excess respectively.
=== 2026 Iran war === Following the assassination of Ali Khamenei during the 2026 Iran war, Badr Organization leader Hadi al-Amiri pledged allegiance to the new supreme leader of Iran, Mojtaba Khamenei.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
Thymosin fraction 5 is a mixture of many peptides obtained from thymus tissue, while thymosin alpha 1 is a single defined 28-residue molecule. The two names appear together in older literature because the purified peptide was first obtained from that mixture.